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【Abstract】With the concept of autonomy being part of the mainstream of research and practice within the field of language education, the study of learning strategies in L2 acquisition has drawn much attention. This paper discusses the issues covering the fundamental aspect: identification and classification of learning strategy. The problems are reviewed concerning the definition and classification of learning strategies and then the paper tentatively introduces Cohen’s approach to defining learning strategies in terms of prototypicality of features of learning strategies.
【Key words】learning strategies; definition; classification
Introduction
Second language teaching in recent years has shifted from the quest for the perfect teaching method to the internal factors of learners. According to Michael H. Long and Jack C. Richards (O’Malley & Chamot, 2001, preface), research in the case of learners has led to the study of 1) how learners approach learning, both in and out of classrooms, and 2) the kinds of strategies and cognitive processing they use in second language acquisition. As the theory and practice of language teaching enters a new century, the idea of helping leaners succeed in developing autonomy has become one of the prominent themes in the field of teaching education. Research on the behaviours involved in autonomous language learning has to a large extent drawn upon research on learning strategies (Benson, 2005).
The study of learning strategies in second language acquisition started around the 1970s ( for example, Rubin 1975; Wong Fillmore 1976 and 1979; Stern 1975). It aimed at identifying the range of strategies. Much of the study has clearly been influenced by developments in cognitive psychology. The emergence of learning strategies traced back to answering the question: Why are some people more effective at learning than others? Effective learning is not merely a matter of a high IQ. What seems to be more important is the learners’ ability to respond to the particular learning situation and to manage their learning in an appropriate manner. More recent studies have tended to focus on the strategies when learners perform particular tasks. Over 30 years, it is probably true to say that the study of learning strategies is still in its infancy. There are many issues that need sorting out before strategy training can be implemented effectively ( Ellis, 1994) , One of the most essential issues is the definition and classification of learning strategy. This paper aims to enhance and complement the current theory.
1.Definitions and redefinition of learning strategies
It is not easy to tie down the definition of learning strategies partly because the concept of “strategy” itself is somewhat fuzzy and partly because terms such as skills, strategies, processes, and approaches are used differently by different people. Researchers have not gained a common understanding of learning strategies. Perspectives are so different that Ellis (1994) states that “definitions of learning strategies have tended to be ad hoc and atheoretical ” (p. 533).
Some definitions of learning strategies produced by different researchers are as follows:
Tarone (1980): A language learning strategy is an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language. The motivation of the use of this strategy is the desire to learn.
Stern (1983): In our view strategy is best reserved for general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learner, leaving techniques as the term to refer to particular forms of observable learning behaviour.
Chomot(1987): Learning strategies are techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning, recall of both linguistic and content area information.
Rubin (1987): Learning strategies are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly.
Oxford (1989): Language learning strategies are behaviours or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable.
Cohen (1998) : Learning strategies are learning processes which are consciously selected by the learner. The words “consciously select” are important because they demonstrate the special character of strategy.
Wenden(1998): Learning strategies are mental steps or operations that learners use to learn a new language and to regulate their efforts to do so.( as cited in Ellis, 1994, p. 531)
The above definitions show that no researchers define language learning strategies in exactly the same way. All these definitions provide insights into understanding the process of learning a language. How to define learning strategies is crucial in underpinning the framework of researchers’ study. Definition is fundamental to laying the foundation for the areas of research. However, these definitions of language learning strategies reveals some problems. “Learning strategies” is such a broad word that it can refer to the general approaches or specific techniques used to learn a language. Maybe it is the main reason why the definitions are atheoretical. There are other two problems: Are learning strategies to be perceived of as behavioural or mental? Are learning strategies conscious and intentional or subconscious?
A complete definition of learning strategies is not available. Perhaps one of the best approaches to defining learning strategies is to list the main charcteristics (Ellis, 1994). In this case, it would appear that the areas of consensus outweigh those of disagreement. Cohen (2005) , when he made a survey questionnaire among a group of second-language learner strategy experts to determine how they conceptualize and use the terminology in strategy research and practice, proposed a construct of learning strategy which was viewed not as an absolute, all-or-nothing feature but in terms of how far along a continuum a feature could possibly go before it stopped being descriptive of a strategy. This is an approach of defining learning strategies in terms of how prototypical the feature was. These features as follows are arranged in a descending order of agreement, with the features receiving the lowest level of agreement last.
A. purpose or goal orientation: Most of respondents think learning strategies are goal-directed.
B. sequence of actions: There was general consensus among respondents strategic behavior could fall along a continuum from a single action or a sequence of actions.
C. focus of attention: There was relatively solid consensus for including attention as a feature on a continuum from focus on to focus away.
D. degree of monitoring: There was relative consensus that monitoring deserves status as a prototypical feature of a strategy. The concern was for the extent of monitoring likely to be found in actual strategy behavior.
E. level of observability: This feature received less acceptance because strategies are at various levels of observability along a continuum. There may be numerous strategies that involve mental processes.
F. deliberateness: This proved to be a problematic distinction between deliberateness and automation. Some respondents strongly hold that once a process is automatic, it can no longer be a strategy since in this context “automatic” means habitual and unconscious.
G. extent of evaluation: Only some respondents recognize evaluation as a necessary dimension for a strategy because in fact learners do not often reflect on how effectively they use the given strategy.
F. self- initiation: What are the source of intiation? From the teacher, a peer or learners themselves? Tracking the source of types of strategies might provide useful insights about the value of strategy instruction.
H. degree of planning: There are mixed views about the item. Some respondents hold the view that some intuitive students are not planning as much as they are instantly understanding the task and knowing the strategy to use, such a planning continuum might be a bit simplistic and require to really understand what planning the use of a strategy actually means.
Cohen’s attempt to describe the prototypicality of strategies is a step forward concerning defining learning strategies. It might reflect the nature of learning strategies to a large extent because the answers to the questionnaire come from strategy experts. It is true that some problems still exist. For example, how does Cohen select some features as prototypicality? In the item F, self-intiation maybe has not much to do with strategies. However, the prototypicality sheds light on the further study. Greater clarity can serve the action along, and bring about greater consensus.
2．Classification of learning strategies
2.1 General introduction to its classifications
Ellis (1994) notes that learning strategies differ in a number of ways, reflecting the type of learners under study, the setting and the particular interests of the researchers. Therefore, different researchers form different frameworks to classify learning strategies. The categories that have been established are high-inference in nature, which often needs considerable explanation on the part of the researchers (Ellis, 1994). |
