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中国农村改革的成就和未来面临的挑战
纵观历史，中国一直经历着动荡的时代和经济改革的变化。最突出的是1978年邓小平提出的经济改革。在这篇文章中，我们将围绕中国从最贫穷的国家开始改革以来的成就和不足进行论述，我国10亿总人口中大概有60％的人口生活在贫困线以下，并且每天收入低于1美元。这时候两个重要的变化发生了， 从农村到城市社会，从计划经济到市场为基础的经济的改革。虽然毫无疑问经济改革提高了中国的经济发展水平，如果这个成就是持续性的，我们还必须考虑到改革的成本问题。
关于1978年改革
改革的第一时期，1978年至1984年
1978年的改革，共产党在十一届三中全会决定开始一个新的经济改革，其重点是为了中国的经济发展，而不是为了政治问题。
Rural Reform Of China Achievements And Future Challenges
Throughout its history, China has been through tumultuous times and changes in economic reforms. The most prominent one is the 1978 economic reform under Deng Xiao Ping. In this essay, we will focus on the achievements and shortcomings of this reform, which transformed China from one of the poorest countries in the world, with 60 percent of the 1 billion of population living below poverty and earning less than $1 a day to the market economy it is today [1] . Two essential changes took place – from a rural to an urban society, and from a command economy to that of a market-based economy. Although the economic reforms have undisputedly improved China, we also have to take into account the costs of the reforms, those left behind by the reforms and if this achievement is sustainable.
About the 1978 Reforms
First Phase of Reform, 1978 to 1984
The 1978 reforms started by the third Plenum of Communist Party in China decided to embark on a new economic reform, whose focus was on economic development for China instead of political issues. There were many changes involved, such as in ideology, production and change in the collective farming communes but it was a gradual change. One of the most important change was the introduction of the Household Responsibility System(HRS). This system was introduced four times 1957, 1959–1961, 1964, and after 1978 respectively. The first three times it was enforced in poor regions like the provinces of Anhui and Sichuan, where it was meant to be an attempt to salvage the agricultural disasters in these places [2] . It was only after 1978, this system was implemented much more extensively, and spread throughout the country.
Prior to this system, farmers operated under a commune system. Agricultural production was organized by the production team, and the farmers were simply assigned to various labour units and then received different wages according to the units they were assigned to. This was done through the ‘Differentiated Workload System’, whereby farmers were grouped based on various factors such as age, sex, labour potential. Completed workdays are then recorded and they are paid accordingly. Besides, every member of the commune could not escape even if they wanted to. It was compulsory, even if the people in the communes did not want to farm or could not farm well. They were ultimately organized into communes of 4,000 to 5,000 households. [3]
Under the Household Responsibility system, also known as the 包产到户 (Bao Chan Dao Hu), the land that were formerly owned by the communes were leased out to individual households. In return, these households have to give a certain amount or quota of their agricultural production back to the production team. If they had produced in excess, they are free to keep those for themselves. [4]
During this period, the Towns and Village Enterprises (TVEs) also began to emerge. TVEs are formed when there is dynamic economic growth in a village to the point such that the entire village gathers to form a business together. These TVEs are allowed to sell their products at the market price, and thus could retain the profits, if any. They have been a colossal force behind the Chinese development all the way to the present times. In 1978, 1.5 million TVEs employed 28.2 million workers, whereas by 1996, 23.4 million TVEs employed 135.1 million workers. [5]
Second Phase of Reform, 1984 to 1992
During the second phase, China began adopting an ‘Open Door Policy’. Most noticeable is the existent of the dual-track economy that results. With the announcement of the Provisional Regulations on Expanding the Autonomy of Enterprises in May 1984, enterprises are now allowed to sell their products at a price different from the state plan, all the way up to 20% higher than the state price.
Farmers now receive a fixed acquisition price for the volume of agricultural products they have to give to the state. By producing beyond this limit, they are free to sell the remainder at market prices. The contract period for the lease of private plots has been extended from 5 to 15 years for annual crops and then in 1994, it was further extended to 30 years. [6]
Special Economic Zones (SEZ) began to spring up during the second phase as well as part of China’s ‘opening up’ to the rest of the world. By 1988, Hainan islands were the fifth and largest SEZ with a population of 6 million and an area of 33,920 km2. SEZs are essentially trade zones where the Chinese government opts to keep tariffs minimal so as to encourage foreign direct investment (FDI) and also promote trade. Science and technology was bolstered and encouraged to thrive. Furthermore, relatively flexible management at these zones aim to promote a export-oriented economy. Other successful SEZs include Shenzhen (2020 square kilometers) and Zhuhai (1687.8 square kilometers).
As price controls were lifted in this period, it brought about high inflation as well. Inflation was 17.8% in 1989, 3 percent 1991 and 27% in 1994. The price of many foods increased 60%. [7] In 1985, credit was expanding rapidly and prices were liberalized at the same time. With money supply increasing at a rate of 23.2% but prices rising at a rate of 7.4% from 1985 to 1987, further liberalization actions accelerated inflation to 17.8% 1989. The government then reduced its price liberalization, investment and tightened monetary controls, inflation was finally curbed to 1.4% in 1990. By 1991, the economy had recovered from the shock of inflation and GDP soared to 8% while investment grew by 18.8%. By 1993, growth rates had hit 13.4%. [8]
The control of foreign exchanges was gradually being relaxed. The Chinese yuan was devalued from 1.7 yuan to one US dollar in 1980 to 8.6 yuan in 1994, and the exchange rate was made equal to the market rate, making the Chinese yuan convertible for trade transactions. From 1995 to now, the exchange rate has remained approximately stable at 8.3 yuan to a dollar. [9]
The other component for open door policy is the encouragement of foreign investment. Foreign direct investment(FDI) increased from just 1.8 billion US dollars in 1984 to 41.7 billion in 1996, mainly from Hong Kong. FDI actually makes up for over 60% of China’s exports. This is extremely cardinal as it helps the transfer of technology, managerial skill and modern business practice to China as well as provides competition to state enterprises, making them more efficient and aiding further development.
At the same time, SOEs reforms began. Decentralization policies were used to make SOEs more viable. Firms were allowed to produce more than the plan quota like the farmers, and sell their excess production to make profits. SOEs were given more freedom in managerial decisions like the level of production, marketing and investment strategies and distribution of profits. This greatly increased productivity and efficiency like agricultural production. Firms were allowed to get involved with international businesses, and built joint-ventures with foreign companies, especially those in the coastal cities later on in the reforms. This was also known as the Contract Responsibility System. Under this system, a manager of a firm can sign a contract with a state agency. Although the manager had the right to decide on the operation of the firm in general, the firm is to be an asset of the state, hence the name State Owned Enterprises. [10]
In 1988, the government had another economic reform known as the Ten Year Reform Strategy. One objective was to encourage urban residents to buy their own houses, and to formulate housing finance arrangement and to restructure rents in the public sector. Central and local legislation and regulations on privatization of urban housing have been issued since then. Many houses were built by developers and designers from various countries and many public-sector institutions and enterprises have produced plans to privatize their housing stock through sales to existing tenants or employees. In 1979, private construction and sale by developers became legalized, and there was a shift towards the renting and selling of public housing. These resulted in an increase in the proportion of private housing in the total housing stock and also revived the development of private renting markets. [11]
Third Phase of Reform, 1993 to present
China’s financial reform from 1990s onwards was marked by the emergence of Shanghai as a financial centre. Shanghai, highly industrialized, became the link to the international market and financial hubs. Trade and entrepreneurship thrived during this time. By 1936, there were 28 major foreign banks that had set up branches in Shanghai and merchants used all the way up to 11 currencies for transactions, some of which were printed by local banks. Both the foreign and Chinese merchants started a new system called the “commission indent system,” which is an early form of trade credit which let enterprises and institutions to operate even with minimal financial resources. Also, the stock exchange in Shanghai actually became the largest in Asia during 1920s to 1930s. [12] |
