英国留学生作业：创新是科技进步的主要来源

创新是科技进步的主要来源
Innovation is the prime source of technological advancement
 

“今天的世界被分裂了，不再是由于意识形态,而是技术……地球人口的15%,提供了几乎世界上所有的技术创新……一半世的界人口，可以在生产和消费上采用这些技术。剩下的部分,覆盖了世界上三分之一的人口,是技术上断开连接,无论是国内创新还是采用外国技术。” 

根据1990年的增长理论,“创新是科技进步的主要来源……进而推动经济增长”。主要动机之一,促进发展中国家广泛接受和鼓励FDI各种渠道吸收溢出国外公司的技术。硬技术(工业过程、设备和植物)或软技术(技术、管理理念、营销技能等)由跨国企业(跨国公司)被认为是经济发展和经济增长的主要来源。

当一个跨国公司与发展中国家的公司垂直整合时,这些公司在主机市场被迫遵守外资质量严格的指导和标准,以确保产品或服务的上游原材料或服务。外国公司将指导和协助,同时增强服务质量由当地子公司提供管理和技术上的帮助。国内竞争对手公司提高他们的产品，保持跟上市场的外国附属公司从而提高东道国企业的生产力。基于美国最大的零售商,沃尔玛的进入和中国的快速扩张，已帮助物流行业在中国市场爬更高层次。

对于发展中国家在全球经济中开拓利基市场,他们需要技术先进。有可能从外国引进新技术来开发市场,来使其现代化;

"Today's world is divided no longer by ideology but by technology... 15% of the earth's population, provides nearly all of the world's technology innovations...half of the world's population, is able to adopt these technologies in production and consumption. The remaining part, covering around a third of the world's population, is technologically disconnected, neither innovating at home nor adopting foreign technologies." Sachs (2000)

According to the Growth theory of the 1990's, "Innovation is the prime source of technological advancement...which in turn drives economic growth". One of the prime motives, host developing countries widely accept and encourage various channels of FDI is to absorb the technological spill over from the foreign country firms. The Hard Technologies (industrial processes, equipment and plant) or Soft Technologies (technical know-how, management ideas, marketing skills etc) (Dunning and Lundan 2008) contributed by Multi-national Enterprises (MNEs) are considered the main source of economic development and growth.

When a multinational firm vertically integrates with the developing country firms, the firms in host market are forced to abide by the MNE's strict guidance and standards to ensure quality goods or services in the form of raw materials or upstream services. The foreign firms would guide and assist, both managerially and technically which would lead to enhancement of the quality of service by the local affiliates. The domestic rival firms enhance their offerings to keep in pace with the foreign affiliated firms in the market thus enhancing the host country firms' productivity. The biggest US based retailer, Wal-Mart's entry and rapid expansion in China has helped the logistics industry in Chinese market to climb higher level Zhu (2010).

For developing countries to carve their niche in the global economy, they need to be technologically advanced. There is a possibility of importing new technology from foreign developed market, but for this to materialize; the developing countries should have sufficient funds to pay the expensive amount due to currency difference. Also countries will find themselves alienated from the advancement of technologies if they can't develop export markets, Sachs (2008). This can be minimised to a considerable extent by MNEs 'trickle down' effect wherein transfer of technological skills from developed countries to developing countries occurs through FDI. The transfer of Panasonic's microwave manufacturing base from United States to China has led to the presence of 2800 Chinese enterprises to provide components for it, which has not only contributed new technology, but also advanced operations management techniques to Chinese market (Sinani and Meyer 2004).

The risk factor due to uncertainty of new technology's results and heavy investment thwarts the developing countries from introducing any new technology from scratch. The argument in support of MNEs is that technology? is the quintessential component of economic development and demands a lot of investment in research and development (R&D). Developing countries, however, lack both in skills and funds essential for R&D, which has led to the deficient level of R&D in? developing? economies. The host countries' innovation can be stimulated because of the presence of MNEs, which would command resources for R&D. Hence host firms can save on cost by using the technologies which are already implemented and used by MNE's using Demonstration (by MNE's) and Imitation (by host firms) (Das 1987; Wang & Blomstrom 1992, cited in Crespo and Fontoura 2007). However the patent regulation and challenge of absorbing the technological skills in the short term collaborative contracts makes the process very challenging for the firms in the emerging market economy.

The human resources' mobility from MNEs to local firms also act as a channel of technology transfer and extension since the systematic training provided to these high-skilled employees is dissipated to domestic firms in the form of innovative managerial ability thus enhancing the domestic enterprises which would otherwise be impossible (Crespo and Fontoura 2007).

Table 1: Summary of Spillover Channels of FDI(Blomstorm and Kokko (1998); Gorg and Greenaway (2001); Gorg and Strobl (2002))

The technology transfer usually occurs in a market which is imperfectly competitive and possesses no particular market structure. Since different developing countries would have different market structure, it becomes very complicated to have a generalized theory and model to find the determinant factors of technological spill over benefits to local firms (Mondal and Pant 2010). The results of empirical study by various researchers act as an alternative to analyse the net benefits of technology spillover for the host developing countries. The firm's Total Factor Productivity (Factors like the level of R&D, foreign presence, the firm size) can be used as a proxy to gauge technology transfer (Haddad and Harrison 1992, cited in Crespo and Fontoura 2007).According to Seck(2011) "A 10% increase in a developing country's foreign R&D capital stock leads to more than a 2% percent increase in its total factor productivity".

The economic development level (measured by per capita GDP) impacts strongly on R&D activity (Cheung and Lin 2003). The growth in host country's R&D activities reduces the technological gap and increases the absorptive capacity of the host firm thereby benefitting the host developing country.

According to Schmid (2010)," A one percent increase in the Research and development (R&D) expenditure is associated with a five percent increase in the likelihood of a technology transfer". He also states that the technology transfer is positively correlated to the trade flows and R&D expenditure of a developing country. R&D resulting in new processes and products either amplifies firms' revenues or saves firms' costs and is considered as the vital proxy for endogenous growth and technological advancement Zhu (2010). In 2004, 23.7 % of industrial R&D within China was performed by affiliates as compared to 21.7% in 2004 (UNCTAD 2005, cited in Dunning and Lundan 2008, p.359) which exemplifies positive effect on host developing countries. Here the main challenge lies in finding the exact proportion of beneficial R&D activities.

If the relative costs of technology adoption are large to the economic value of the underlying technology (to the host country firms), there will be little adoption relatively and FDI spillovers realized will also be relatively limited (Blomstr?m. et.al 1999).Thus cost of technology adoption plays a major role for the technology transfer to be beneficial to the host country firms.

The factors contributing to the distribution of technological capacity (which includes Higher educational institutions, Scientists and Engineers, R&D laboratories and other physical and human assets) which are aided by foreign affiliates reflects the net beneficial effect on host countries due to export or FDI (Dunning and Lundan 2008).Alongside the direct effects of technological capacity of host countries, the indirect consequences can be measured through knowledge, technology and R&D spillovers to host economy's local firms which can be measured in terms of the raise in productivity of local firms as a result of the MNE's presence or entry into host economy.

A study by Xu (2000), cited in Dunning and Lundan (2008), suggests that the spending on royalties and licence fees indicates the impact of productivity enhancement caused due to technology transfer of FDI in the host countries. The absorptive capacity of the developing countries varies and accordingly the positive or negative effects based on it. The study by Feinberg and Majumdar (2001), cited in Dunning and Lundan (2008) reveals that the pharmaceutical affiliates in India experienced no spillover to local firms through locally conducted R&D whereas the foreign affiliates had benefited. On the contrary, a study conducted by (Mondal and Pant 2010) shows the presence of foreign affiliates and high absorptive capacity for developing countries to impact positively on technology spillover which is elevated by a highly competitive environment.